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Three isotopes occur naturally, 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is a radionuclide, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. It is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds.
![]() ![]() ![]() Its first four ionisation energies, 1086.5, 2352.6, 4620.7 kJ/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group-14 elements. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper, which are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.Carbon is the sixth element, with a ground-state electron configuration of 1s22s22p2, of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest-melting-point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. In general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order.Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon–nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Carbon's covalent radii are normally taken as 77.2 pm (C−C), 66.7 pm (C=C) and 60.3 pm (C≡C), although these may vary depending on coordination number and what the carbon is bonded to. Rocketek 40 driver for macThis exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel:Fe3O4 4 C(s) → 3 Fe(s) 4 CO(g)Carbon monoxide can be recycled to smelt even more iron:Fe3O4 4 CO(g) → 3 Fe(s) 4 CO2(g)with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction:C(s) H2O(g) → CO(g) H2(g).Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide cementite in steel and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hard tips for cutting tools.The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:Graphite is one of the softest materials known.Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardest material known.Graphite is a very good lubricant, displaying superlubricity.Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.Graphite is a conductor of electricity.
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